W.B.C.S. Main 2018 Question Answer – Geography – Classification Of Indian Soils.

1)Attempt a classification of Indian soils, mentioning their characteristics and area of occurrence. Name the regions where soil erosion is prevalent in India. Mention the different programmes adopted by the government to control soil erosion.

India is a country of vast dimensions with varied conditions of geology, relief, climate and vegetation. Therefore, India has a large variety of soil groups, distinctly different from one another. Different criteria have been applied to classify Indian soils, the outstanding being geology, relief, fertility, chemical composition and physical structure, etc.Continue Reading W.B.C.S. Main 2018 Question Answer – Geography – Classification Of Indian Soils.

Any classification based on any one of the aforesaid criteria has its own inherent drawback. Even the most competent pedologist would find it difficult to present an accurate, complete, comprehensive and generalised account of the Indian soils.

During the ‘British rule in India, a vast body of fascinating accounts had emerged in district gazetteers and official reports. These accounts were generally directed towards the assessment of differential soil fertility and land revenue collection, but did not attempt classification of soil types in the country.

The earlier studies of Indian soils were made by foreign scholars like Volckar (1893), Leather (1898), Schokalskaya (1932), Champion (1936), etc. Indian scholars including Wadia (1935), Basu (1937), Vishwanath and Ukil (1944), Chatterjee, Krishnan, Roychaudhary (1954) made strenuous efforts to classify soils of India.

In 1957, The National Atlas Organisation (Kolkata) published a soil map of India in which Indian soils were classified into 6 major groups and 11 broad types. The Irrigation Atlas of India (1972) and Spate’s India, Pakistan and Ceylon (1976) utilised the 7th approximation soil classification developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). The 7th approximation defines soil classes strictly in terms of their morphology and composition as produced by a set of natural and human forces. The classification is determined by quantifiable criteria.

Geologically, Indian soils can broadly be divided into two main types: (a) Soils of peninsular India and (b) Soils of extra-peninsular India.

The soils of Peninsular India are those which have been formed by the deomposition of rocks in situ, i.e. directly from the underlying rocks. They are transported and redeposited to a limited extent and are known as sedentary soils.

On the other hand, the soils of the Extra-Peninsula are formed due to the depositional work of rivers and wind. They are mainly found in the river valleys and deltas. They are very deep and constitute some of the most fertile tracts of the country. They are often referred to as transported or azonal soils.

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) set up an All India Soil Survey Committee in 1953 which divided the Indian soils into eight major groups. They are (1) Alluvial soils, (2) Black soils, (3) Red soils, (4) Laterite and Lateritic soils, (5) Forest and Mountain soils, (6) Arid and Desert soils, (7) Saline and Alkaline soils and (8) Peaty and Marshy soils (See Fig. 7.1). This is a very logical classification of Indian soils and has gained wide acceptance. A brief account of these eight soils is given as under:

1. Alluvial Soils:

Alluvial soils are by far the largest and the most important soil group of India. Covering about 15 lakh sq km or about 45.6 per cent of the total land area of the country, these soils contribute the largest share of our agricultural wealth and support the bulk of India’s population.

Most of the alluvial soils are derived from the sediments deposited by rivers as in the Indo-Gangetic plain although some alluvial soils in the coastal areas have been formed by the sea waves. Thus the parent material of these soils is all of transported origin.

The streams bring with them the products of weathering of rocks from the mountains and deposit them in the low-lying areas. The alluvial soils are yet immature and have weak profiles. They differ in consistency from drift sand to rich loams and from silts to stiff clays. A few occasional kankar beds are also present.

2. Black Soils:

The black soils are also called regur (from the Telugu word Reguda) and black cotton soils because cotton is the most important crop grown on these soils. Several theories have been put forward regarding the origin of this group of soils but most pedologists believe that these soils have been formed due to the solidifaction of lava spread over large areas during volcanic activity in the Deccan Plateau, thousands of years ago.

4.Laterite and Lateritic Soils:

The word ‘laterite’ (from Latin letter meaning brick) was first applied by Buchanan in 1810 to a clayey rock, hardening on exposure, observed in Malabar. But many authors agree with Fermor’s restriction of this term to soils formed as to 90-100 per cent of iron, aluminium, titanium and manganese oxides.

5. Forest and Mountain Soils:

Such soils are mainly found on the hill slopes covered by forests. These soils occupy about 2.85 lakh sq km which is about 8.67 per cent of the total land area of India. The formation of these soils is mainly governed by the characteristic deposition of organic matter derived from forest growth.

6. Arid and Desert Soils:

A large part of the arid and semi-arid region in Rajasthan and adjoining areas of Punjab and Haryana lying between the Indus and the Aravalis, covering an area of 1.42 lakh sq km (or 4.32% of total area) and receiving less than 50 cm of annual rainfall, is affected by desert conditions.

7. Saline and Alkaline Soils:

These soils are found in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. In the drier parts of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Maharashtra, there are salt-impregnated or alkaline soils occupying 68,000 sq km of area. These soils are liable to saline and alkaline efflorescences and are known by different names such as reh, kallar, usar, thur, rakar, karl and chopan.

8. Peaty and Marshy Soils:

Peaty soils originate in humid regions as a result of accumulation of large amounts of organic matter in the soils. These soils contain considerable amount of soluble salts and 10-40 per cent of organic matter. Soils belonging to this group are found in Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala where it is called kari.

Soil Erosion in India – Types and Causes

The removal of soil by running water and wind is known as soil erosion. The soil-forming process and the erosional process of running water and wind are continuous. Generally, there is a balance between these two processes.

The rate of removal of fine particles from the surface is the same as the rate of addition of particles to the soil layer. Sometimes such a balance is disturbed by natural or human factors, leading to a greater rate of removal of soil. When this happens, the entire soil layer may be removed in a few years.

Types of Soil Erosion:

Wind and water are powerful agents of soil erosion because of their ability to remove soil and transport it.

(a) Erosion by Water:

Erosion by water can be of several types, for example, sheet erosion, gully erosion, stream bank erosion, shore erosion and slip erosion.

1. Sheet Erosion:

When a layer of the soil on the surface is removed over a large area by running water, it is called sheet erosion. Sheet erosion is harmful since it removes the finer and more fertile top soil.

2. Rill Erosion:

This is the second stage of sheet erosion. Small finger-like rills begin to appear on the landscape. Over a period of time, the fine rills increase in number and also become deeper and wider. This reduces the actual area under cultivation and the yield of crops decline.

3. Gully Erosion:

When soil is removed by water flowing along definite paths downs the slope or in channels, it is called gully erosion. Gullies cut up agricultural land and make it unfit for cultivation. Badland is a region with a large number of deep gullies or ravines, e.g., Chambal Valley in Madhya Pradesh.

4. Stream Bank Erosion:

The continuously flowing water erodes the banks of streams and rivers. Gradually the bed of the river widens.

5. Shore Erosion:

The tidal waves dash against coastal rocks, causing them to erode bit by bit.

6. Slip Erosion:

During heavy rains, water percolates into the soil until it is unable to penetrate further by the underlying impervious rocks. On steep land, the heavy moisture-laden soil often comes down bodily, resulting in a landslide.

(b) Wind Erosion is significant in desert and semi-desert regions. In regions with heavy rainfall and steep slopes, erosion by running water is more significant.

In some regions, the top soil is blown away by wind in the dry season, and washed away by running water in the wet season.

Causes of Soil Erosion in India:

Soil erosion takes place when soil is removed faster than it is formed. There are many different processes by which soil is removed but the cause is usually the removal of trees and other vegetation that hold the soil together and in place.

1. Topography and Slope of the Land:

Hilly Region:

Rainfall occurs in torrents and washes away the top layer of the soil. Also, the steep slopes stimulate the eroding power of the rainwater.

Plains:

Here the erosion is comparatively less than on slopes. But in regions where the rivers overflow onto the plains, the erosion is severe. For example, the entire basin of the Kosi River is threatened by the over-flowing of river.

2. Nature of Rainfall:

Floods and torrential rains cause more damage than light or moderate showers spread over many days.

i. The action of heavy rain is stronger when there are no trees and the plains are bare.

ii. When a prolonged dry spell is followed by sudden heavy rain, sheet erosion takes place. This is because the ground gets baked hard and the soil is unable to absorb the water easily.

3. Nature of Soil:

Porous soils with good water-absorbing capacity are least subject to erosion, while the impervious soils are gradually eroded by the action of water.

4. The Human Factor:

Man and his activities are responsible for soil erosion to a great extent. As the human population increases, the demand on the land also increases. Forest and other natural vegetation are removed for human settlement, for cultivation, for grazing animals and for various other needs. Improper use of land leads to soil erosion.

(a) Deforestation: is the removal of trees and other vegetation which hold the soil together. When vegetation is removed, the soil surface is loose and more easily removed by running water and wind. Rain water that could have been absorbed by the soil, rapidly runs off the surface carrying soil with it.

(b) Overgrazing of Land: by animals results in removal of grass over a large area making it easy for wind and running water to remove the soil. In many parts of India, hill sides have become barren because of overgrazing by goats.

(c) Improper Farming Techniques: Ploughing fields in the traditional up and down manner along the slopes makes it easier for running water and wind to cause erosion.

Major Programmes of the Department

The programmes/schemes implemented by the Department include both Centrally Sponsored Schemes as well as State Plan Schemes.

A. State Plan Schemes

(1) Soil & Water Conservation in General Areas.
(2) Watershed Management Programme.

B. Centrally Sponsored Schemes

(1) Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP).
(2) Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP).

C. Additional Central Assistance

(1) Watershed Development project in Shifting Cultivation Areas (WDPSCA)
(2) Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP)

D.  NABARD Loan

Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF)

E. Other Government of India Schemes

(1) Soil Conservation for enhancing the productivity of degraded lands in the catchment of River Kopili in Jaintia Hills District under Macro-Management Mode of Agriculture Department, Meghalaya.
(2) Rastriya Krishi Vigyan Yojna (RKVY)

F. Special Plan Assistance

(1) Cherrapunjee Ecological Project- Restoration of Degraded Lands Under Sohra Plateau.

A. State Plan Schemes

1. Soil & Water Conservation in General Areas

This scheme covers the general areas outside those not specifically covered by other packages of schemes of the Department. Its main objective is to reduce soil erosion hazards and land degradation and conservation of water, where individuals/groups of farmers are targeted. Activities taken up under this Scheme include terracing and reclamation, erosion control, water conservation and distribution, afforestation, cash/horticulture crops development works water harvesting works, farm ponds, conservation works in urban areas, etc.

2. Watershed Management Programme

The programme aims for treating the micro watersheds on an integrated approach. The activities include treatment of arable land, non-arable land and drainage lines. Due to fund constraint, the activities have been confined mainly to afforestation, cash/ horticultural crop developmental works.

B. Centrally Sponsored Schemes

1. Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP)

The scheme is funded by the Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India with 91.66% as Central Share and 8.34% as State Share. With an intention of involving village communities in the implementation of Watershed Development Projects (WDP) under IWDP, the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD), Government of India, adopted the WDP Guidelines (1995) which was subsequently revised in 2001 (WDP Revised Guidelines, 2001) and later evolved the New Guidelines for Hariyali (2003) which are under implementation w.e.f. April 1, 2003.

There are 112 projects sanctioned for treatment in 439 micro-watersheds covering a total area of 2,21,225.00 hectare with a total cost of Rs.13,053.25 lakh.

2. Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP)

During 2009-10, the Government of India, Ministry of Rural Development, Department of Land Resources, has approved for treatment of 30,000 hectares in 18 watershed projects of the State. Subsequently, the Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India approved 52,000, 37,500 and 38,870 hectares of area for treatment during 2010-11, 2011-12 and 2012-13 respectively.

The Central and State share for the IWMP projects is in the ratio of 90:10.

The main objectives of this programme are as follows:

• To dissipate soil and water erosion and surface run-off
• To harvest/ recycle surface runoff and rainwater
• To enhance soil moisture regime/ water holding capacity
• To promote sub-surface flow, base flow and ground water recharge
• To improve soil health and tilth
• To improve production and productivity
• To promote generation and gainful employment opportunities

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