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Economics Notes – For W.B.C.S. Examination – Modern Monetary System.
অর্থনীতি নোট – WBCS পরীক্ষার জন্য – আধুনিক মুদ্রা ব্যবস্থা।
Domestic monetary systems are today very much alike in all the major countries of the world. They have three levels: (1) the holders of money (the “public”), which comprise individuals, businesses, and governmental units, (2) commercial banks (private or government-owned), which borrow from the public, mainly by taking their deposits, and make loans to individuals, firms, or governments, and (3) central banks, which have a monopoly on the issue of certain types of money, serve as the bankers for the central government and the commercial banks, and have the power to determine the quantity of money. The public holds its money in two ways: as currency (including coin) and as bank deposits.Continue Reading Economics Notes – For W.B.C.S. Examination – Modern Monetary System.
Bank deposits
In addition to currency, bank deposits are counted as part of the money holdings of the public. In the 19th century most economists regarded only currency and coin, including gold and other metals, as “money.” They treated deposits as claims to money. As deposits became more and more widely held and as a larger fraction of transactions were made by check, economists started to include not the checks but the deposits they transferred as money on a par with currency and coin.
The definition of money has been the subject of much dispute. The chief point at issue is which categories of bank deposits can be called “money” and which should be regarded as “near money” (liquid assets that can be converted to cash). Everyone includes currency. Many economists include as money only deposits transferable by check (demand deposits)—in the United States the sum of currency and checking deposits is known as M1. Other economists include nonchecking deposits, such as “time deposits” in commercial banks. In the United States, the addition of these deposits to M1 represents a measure of the money supply known as M2. Still other economists include deposits in other financial institutions, such as savings banks, savings and loan associations, and so on.
The term deposits is highly misleading. It connotes something deposited for safekeeping, like currency in a safe-deposit box. Bank deposits are not like that. When one brings currency to a bank for deposit, the bank does not put the currency in a vault and keep it there. It may put a small fraction of the currency in the vault as reserves, but it will lend most of it to someone else or will buy an investment such as a bond or some other security. As part of the inducement to depositors to lend it money, a bank provides facilities for transferring demand deposits from one person to another by check.
The deposits of commercial banks are assets of their holders but are liabilities of the banks. The assets of the banks consist of “reserves” (currency plus deposits at other banks, including the central bank) and “earning assets” (loans plus investments in the form of bonds and other securities). The banks’ reserves are only a small fraction of the aggregate (total) deposits. Early in the history of banking, each bank determined its own level of reserves by judging the likelihood of demands for withdrawals of deposits. Now reserve amounts are determined through government regulation.
The growth of deposits enabled the total quantity of money (including deposits) to be larger than the total sum available to be held as reserves. A bank that received, say, $100 in gold might add 25 percent of that sum, or $25, to its reserves and lend out $75. But the recipient of the $75 loan would spend it. Some of those who received gold this way would hold it as gold, but others would deposit it in a bank. For example, if two-thirds was redeposited, on average, some bank or banks would find $50 added to deposits and to reserves. The receiving bank would repeat the process, adding $12.50 (25 percent of $50) to its reserves and lending out $37.50. When this process worked itself out fully, total deposits would have increased by $200, bank reserves would have increased by $50, and $50 of the initial $100 deposited would have been retained as “currency outside banks.” There would be $150 more money in total than before (deposits up by $200, currency outside banks down by $50). Although no individual bank created money, the system as a whole did. This multiple expansion process lies at the heart of the modern monetary system.
Credit and debit cards
A credit card is not money. It provides an efficient way to obtain credit through a bank or financial institution. It is efficient because it obviates the seller’s need to know about the credit standing and repayment habits of the borrower. For a fee that each subscribing merchant agrees to pay, the bank issues the credit card, makes a loan to the buyer, and pays the merchant promptly. The buyer then has a debt that he or she settles by making payment to the credit card company. Instead of carrying more money, or making credit arrangements with many merchants, the buyer makes a single payment for purchases from many merchants. The balance can be paid in full, usually on a monthly basis, or the buyer can pay a fraction of the total debt, with interest charged on the remaining balance.
Before credit cards existed, a buyer could arrange a loan at a bank. The bank would then credit the buyer’s deposit account, allowing the buyer to pay for his or her purchases by writing checks. Under this arrangement the merchant bore more of the costs of collecting payment and the costs of acquiring information about the buyer’s credit standing. With credit cards, the issuing company, often a bank, bears many of these costs, passing some of the expenses along to merchants through the usage fee.
A debit card differs from a credit card in the way the debt is paid. The issuing bank deducts the payment from the customer’s account at the time of purchase. The bank’s loan is paid immediately, but the merchant receives payment in the same way as with the use of a credit card. Risk to the lending institution is reduced because the electronic transmission of information permits the bank to refuse payment if the buyer’s deposit balance is insufficient.
Electronic money
Items used as money in modern financial systems possess various attributes that reduce costs or increase convenience. Units of money are readily divisible, easily transported and transferred, and recognized instantly. Legal tender status guarantees final settlement. Currency protects anonymity, avoids record keeping, and permits lower costs of payment. But currency can be lost, stolen, or forged, so it is used most often for relatively small transactions or where anonymity is valued.
Information processing reduces costs of transfer, record keeping, and the acquisition of information. “Electronic money” is the name given to several different ways in which the public and financial and nonfinancial firms use electronic transfers as part of the payments system. Since most of these transfers do not introduce a new medium of exchange (i.e., money), electronic transfer is a more appropriate name than electronic money.
Four very different types of transfer can be distinguished. First, depositors can use electronic funds transfers (EFTs) to withdraw currency from their accounts using automated teller machines (ATMs). In this way an ATM withdrawal works like a debit card. ATMs also allow users to deposit checks into their accounts or repay bank loans. While they do not replace the assets used as money, ATMs make money more readily available and more convenient to use by accepting transactions even when banks are closed, be it on weekends or holidays or at any time of the day. ATMs also overcome geographic and national boundaries by allowing travelers to conduct transactions in many parts of the world.
The second form of EFT, “smart cards” (also known as stored-value cards), contain a computer chip that can make and receive payments while recording each new balance on the card. Users purchase the smart card (usually with currency or deposits) and can use it in place of currency. The issuer of the smart card holds the balance (float) and thus earns interest that may pay for maintaining the system. Most often the cards have a single purpose or use, such as making telephone calls, paying parking meters, or riding urban transit systems. They retain some of the anonymity of currency, but they are not “generally accepted” as a means of payment beyond their dedicated purpose. There has been considerable speculation that smart cards would replace currency and bring in the “cashless society,” but there are obstacles, the primary one being that the maintenance of a generalized transfer system is more costly than using the government’s currency. Either producers must find a way to record and transfer balances from many users to many payees, or users must purchase many special-purpose cards.
The automated clearinghouse (ACH) is the third alternative means of making deposits and paying bills. ACH networks transfer existing deposit balances, avoid the use of checks, and speed payments and settlement. In addition, many large payments (such as those to settle securities or foreign exchange transactions between financial institutions) are made through electronic transfer systems that “net” (determine a balance of) the total payments and receipts; they then transfer central bank reserves or clearinghouse deposits to fund the net settlement. Some transactions between creditors and debtors give rise to claims against commodities or financial assets. These may at first be barter transactions that are not settled promptly by paying conventional money. Such transactions economize on cash balances and increase the velocity, or rate of turnover, of money.
As technologies for individual users developed, banks permitted depositors to pay their bills by transferring funds from their account to the creditor’s account. This fourth type of electronic funds transfer reduces costs by eliminating paper checks.
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